Genre Definitions

This document offers a viewpoint on defining document, or information, characteristics. Originally, it supported the work of several major corporations in their efforts to discover evaluation methods for assessing information "quality." While all of the participating corporations realized the difficulties of undertaking such a task, they all agreed that applying "some" assessment measures had the potential to help create a baseline from which future measures could be assessed.

For instructional purposes these definitions offer a point of departure for more structured discussions of the characteristic of documents; their expressed or implied purposes; and the needs, intentions, interests, and behaviors of potential audiences. Hopefully, they will generate useful debate.

Tutorial	Referential	Procedural
Job-Aids	Marketing	Glossary

Tutorials

Tutorial documents provide:

Long-term, or kernel, knowledge about a range of user interactions, and product capabilities
A conceptual framework that fits with existing users' knowledge
Essential rather than peripheral information.

Kernel knowledge is core information the reader has about a product or process. For instance, for a computer program this would include definitions of function keys that perform the same action, no matter where a reader is in using the product. For a reader's working through a process, kernel knowledge could be a sequence of steps that is standard throughout the process.

A conceptual framework includes knowledge about a product that allows a reader to generalize from one situation to another. For instance, for a computer product this would include knowledge of the syntactic conventions for command strings. It could also include knowledge of similarities among related products that allow a reader to move from one product to another without substantial relearning. The desktop metaphor found on many graphic user interfaces allows readers to apply that conceptual framework to a family of products.

An additional distinction can be made in terms of breadth and depth. Novice tutorials, for instance, present a wide breadth of information but the depth is shallow; expert tutorials may have a similar breadth with considerably more depth.

Procedural documents, in contrast, offer narrowly focused information (single modules) with considerable depth (step-by-step instructions) and, perhaps, cross-referenced to related information. Similarly, reference material has many modules each with a narrow focus (perhaps a subset of a procedural module) but with considerable depth.

Modules are self-contained textual units that focus on a single topic. The length and content of a module depends on the type of text - tutorial, procedural, or reference - in which it appears.

Audience Training

Novices using elementary tutorials may have no previous exposure to a product, or even to a similar product. Users may be classified as novices regardless of their level of technical expertise. Novice users are searching for a framework or kernel knowledge.

Subject-area specialists have specialized knowledge of the task the product supports. They may have knowledge of similar products, but this product is new to them. They need kernel knowledge.

The audience for training manuals has used the product, has used similar products, or has basic knowledge that can be applied to training.

Frequency of Use

The expected usage pattern for an elementary tutorial is a one-time pass through the text, though the exposure period may vary from a single sitting to full length (many weeks long) courses. Training manuals, more commonly, support full length courses.

Language Characteristics

Conceptual documents have such language characteristics as:

Overviews of product operations
Conceptual models, analogies, and examples
Modules focused on a single activity
Topic and section links

Topic links are cohesive elements within text sections or modules that help readers follow the presentation. These links include, but are not limited to: repetitive use of major topic terms - nouns or verbs introduction and subsequent use of abbreviations, acronyms, and the like unambiguous use of pronoun referents presence of transitional terms to establish relationships use of terms from similar term classes (electrical, etc.)

Section links are cohesive elements among text sections that help readers find associated or supporting information. These links will include all of those detailed under topic links and add: cross-referencing information to other text areas or supporting display information

Short time-to-productivity and accurate performance are important factors. Another aim is to allow transfer of learning to novel situations. New terms are defined as they are introduced.

Elementary tutorials offer sample interactions including user actions, system responses, and feedback about performance to measure success.

Training manuals, as opposed to elementary tutorials, are designed for subject-area specialists and can include logic, wiring, or other types of operational diagrams that require specialized knowledge to decode. Can also include discussions of specialized principles, mathematical treatments, or laboratory analyses that require similar levels of audience sophistication.

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Procedural Documents

Procedural documents support:

A reader's short-term or immediate need to perform a task.
Time-dependent performance.
Step-by-step activities.

Users are:

Resolving a question or problem that interrupts their work. They are seeking models, step-by-step instructions, examples, analogies, or metaphors that will allow them to resolve problems in the task domain.
Using procedural information as an integral part of their work, as part of the task domain. In this instance, the manual is a functional partner in the task and must be consulted throughout the workday.

Models are abstract formulations of a product or process that provide a mathematical, verbal, or visual formula for the reader to use as the basis of a mental model of the structure of a product or process. (e.g. What are the logical relationships in this product?)

Step-by-Step Instructions lead a reader through a task without describing the full implications of the steps and without linking them to other possible steps.

Examples are concrete, detailed illustrations of abstract concepts. They allow readers to see the link between abstract conceptual formulations and their concrete applications. Readers may work on tasks at a concrete level by modifying examples, rather than building concrete cases from abstract models.

Analogies make overt comparisons between novel situations and situations readers already know. For instance, operation "C" in this program is like operation "F" in another program.

Metaphors are implied comparisons between novel situations and situations readers already know. For instance, providing icons on a graphic computer interface implies that the user may act on the graphic representation of an object as they would on the objects themselves.

Audience Training

Novice users may already understand the logic of a product; they may also know basic ways of interacting with the product. This knowledge comes from recent contact with tutorial documents or the product.

Infrequent or casual users should have the same training or background as novices. However, they may use procedural documents long after reading tutorial documents or after a hiatus in using the product.

Subject-area specialists have specialized knowledge of the task. They may by-pass tutorial information and try to operate the product with procedural documents. They may be similar to novices in their lack of experience with the product.

Specialized knowledge of tasks means that the user knows the form and function of a technical or scientific process that can be acted upon by using the product. In addition, content intended for subject-area specialists may use a specialized vocabulary (abbreviations common to a specialty) and notational systems (mathematical or scientific formulae, diagrams or symbols). While these language elements may compress the amount of text, they make the text less useful for a novice who requires a more common vocabulary and familiar notational systems.

Frequency of Use

Expected usage pattern is in support of complex, single-time operation or procedure (i.e. installation and/or configuration) or for time-dependent performance during the routine, daily use of a product or process.

Language Characteristics

The major document categories include:

Quick reference compresses text into summary modules
Processing or operating documents offer the underlying interaction logic and the combination rules that users can apply in similar situations.
General procedures provide one-time or infrequent-use information for specific tasks such as installing and configuring a product.
Detailed procedures offer greater depth than general procedures and, generally, support time-dependent tasks.

These documents have such language characteristics as:

Overviews of product operations
Conceptual models, analogies, and examples
Modules presenting sequences that support one or more activities
Topic and section links
Macro-level retrieval, location, and navigation aids

Fast time-to-productivity and accurate performance are important factors.

Macro-level Retrieval aids help users find specific pages or text sections within a larger information unit. These aids help the reader locate the module likely to contain the information they need. Readers will still have to search the module for the correct details. Macro-level retrieval aids include tables of content, lists of data displays, and indices.

Location aids are text elements that help readers locate their place within large text units; they can be considered "at-a-glance" indicators of relative position. The content of location aids can be either informative or abstract. Informative aids relate the unit's topic to specific details (i.e. - Configuring the HU21 Printer Port); abstract aids offer only general context (i.e. - Printer Configuration). Location aids include degree heads, running headers or footers, tabs or lifters, chapter or module heads, overview titles, and the like.

Navigation aids include any textual or visual content that helps readers move around in a text. These aids offer links for users to follow among sections such as references to supporting information (data displays or printed appendices) or internal references to related sections.

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Reference Documents

Reference information provides greater breadth and depth than other document information types. Its use by readers can be characterized as sporadic, individual sections being retrieved only when needed to support a task. Like procedural documents, reference documents are also time-dependent and task-supportive.

However, the level of detail requires the reader to understand information presented in a symbolic form. For instance, command or operation descriptions may be syntax statements with cryptic extensions. The writer expects the reader to understand these descriptions without additional commentary.

In contrast to the step-by-step presentation of procedural information, reference information offers detailed descriptions without linking them into sequences. Reference documents also may focus on task accuracy, especially as it applies to safety considerations. For instance, for aircraft flight operations the focus is on performing tasks accurately, even though there is a time element: the flight engineer calculates speeds and flap settings based on aircraft weights while preparing for takeoffs.

Audience Training

A grasp of basic conceptual issues is assumed. That is, document and product conventions will not be explained because the expectation is that readers have a command of these conventions.

However, subject-area specialists and power users will be more likely to understand those documents at the highest level of sophistication: technical vocabulary and data displays (specialized diagrams, drawings, and symbols), and references to the operation of specific equipment.

Power users, with or without special training, use a product with such frequency that they have developed conceptual models that allow them to perform at levels comparable to subject-area specialists.

Frequency of Use

Since these documents support all phases of a product or process, it is likely that they will be employed often. However, readers will neither consume large sections of text nor read the text linearly; instead, they will choose only small, often disparate, sections. This usage pattern of procedural and reference documents is similar. The difference is that reference material is nuts-and-bolts, while procedural is step-by-step.

Language Characteristics

Reference documents may be organized in several ways, but they will be internally consistent within manuals or manual suites. For example, one possible organizing principle might be alphabetic, based on available commands; this dictionary style would be used throughout the entire manual. Another organizing principle might be a taxonomy of equipment components: subassemblies, assemblies, and the like. Other organizing principles are also possible.

Reference documents use specific language conventions (reduced vocabulary and technical terminology) and symbolic systems (wiring diagrams, manufacturing drawings, technical information displays, mathematical or other professional notation system) understandable by an experienced user or subject-area specialist.

For instance, a reference manual could use a standard convention for warnings and cautions, because the writer expects the user to have encountered this convention in other documents. The implication is that the reader is sophisticated and that the processes described may require specialized tools or knowledge.

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Job Aids

Job aids support quick reference behaviors. They provide the user with a summary of information needed to operate, maintain, or repair machinery or processes.

In contrast to the step-by-step presentation of procedural information, job aid information offers detailed descriptions of actions with or without linking them into specific sequences. Job aid documents also may focus on task accuracy, especially as it applies to safety considerations.

Audience Training

A grasp of basic conceptual issues is assumed. That is, document and product conventions will not be explained because the expectation is that readers have a command of these conventions.

However, subject-area specialists and power users will be more likely to understand those documents at the highest level of sophistication: technical vocabulary and data displays (specialized diagrams, drawings, and symbols), and references to the operation of specific equipment.

Frequency of Use

Since these documents support all phases of a product or process, it is likely that they will be employed often. Since the text will be prepared as a quick reference, it may lack many textual features — overviews, summaries, headers, and the like. It may even be predominantly visual in nature.

Readers will choose only small, often disparate, sections. This usage pattern is similar to procedural and reference documents.

Language Characteristics

Job aid documents will be internally consistent within manuals or manual suites. For example, one possible organizing principle might be alphabetic, based on available commands; this dictionary style would be used throughout the job aid. Another organizing principle might be a taxonomy of equipment components: subassemblies, assemblies, and the like. Other organizing principles are also possible; however, only one organizational principle, and an obvious one, must be present.

Job aids use specific language conventions (reduced vocabulary and technical terminology) and symbolic systems (mathematical or other professional notation systems) understandable by an experienced user or subject-area specialist.

Marketing Documents

Marketing documents, both internal and external, provide greater breadth than other document information types. Its use by readers can be characterized as sporadic, individual sections being retrieved only when needed to decide about the usefulness of the product in a specific task environment.

However, the level of detail requires the reader to understand specialized information. For instance, product descriptions may require the reader to know something about a range of products and/or operations in a specific task domain. The writer expects the reader to understand these descriptions without additional commentary.

Audience Training

A grasp of basic conceptual issues is assumed. That is, document and product conventions will not be explained because the expectation is that readers have a command of these conventions.

Frequency of Use

Since these documents support product sales, it is unlikely that they will be employed often. However, readers will neither consume large sections of text nor read the text linearly; instead, they will choose only small, often disparate, sections.

Language Characteristics

Marketing documents may be organized in several ways, but they will be internally consistent within manuals or manual suites. For example, one organizing principle might be a taxonomy of equipment components: subassemblies, assemblies, and the like. Other organizing principles are also possible.

Reference documents use specific language conventions (technical terminology) and symbolic systems (wiring diagrams, manufacturing drawings, technical information displays, mathematical or other professional notation system) understandable by an experienced user or subject-area specialist.

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Glossary

Term	Definition	Example
Analogies	provide overt comparisons of novel situations readers know	operation "C" in this program is like operation "F" in another program
Conceptual Framework	knowledge about a product that allows a reader to generalize from one situation to another	syntactic conventions for command strings; similarities among related products that allow a reader to move from one product to another without substantial relearning. The desktop metaphor found on many graphic user interfaces allows readers to apply that conceptual framework to a family of products
Examples	allow readers to see the links between abstract concepts and their concrete applications, allowing them to work on tasks by modifying the examples
Kernel Knowledge	core information the reader has about a product or process	definitions of function keys that perform the same action, no matter where a reader is in using the product; a sequence of steps that is standard throughout the process
Location Aids	text elements that help readers locate their place within large text units; they can be considered "at-a-glance" indicators of relative position content of location aids can be either informative or abstract.	Informative aids relate the unit's topic to specific details (i.e. - Configuring the HU21 Printer Port); abstract aids offer only general context (i.e. - Printer Configuration). Location aids include degree heads, running headers or footers, tabs or lifters, chapter or module heads, overview titles, and the like
Macro-level Retrieval Aids	help users find specific pages or text sections within a larger information unit.	tables of content, lists of data displays, and indices
Metaphors	provide implied comparisons of novel situations to situations readers already know	icons in a graphic representation interface that imply users may act on the graphic representation as they would on the objects themselves, such as putting a file in a trash can to delete it
Models	abstract formulations that provide a mathematical, verbal, or visual formula for the reader to use as a basis for understanding a product's structure	an explanation of an electronic mail package using the postal service as a model
Modules	self-contained textual units that focus on a single topic	as in these information type modules
Navigation Aids	any textual or visual content that helps readers move around in a text	aids offer links for users to follow among sections such as references to supporting information (data displays or printed appendices) or internal references to related sections
Section links	cohesive elements among text sections that help readers find associated or supporting information	include all of those detailed under topic links and add: cross-referencing information to other text areas or supporting display information
Specialized Task Knowledge	the user knows the form and function of a technical or scientific process that can be acted upon by using the product.	content intended for subject-area specialists may use a specialized vocabulary (abbreviations common to a specialty) and notational systems (mathematical or scientific formulae, diagrams or symbols)
Step-by -Step Instruction	instructions that lead a user through a task, providing only enough information to complete the task
Topic Links	cohesive elements within text sections or modules that help readers follow the presentation	include, but are not limited to: repetitive use of major topic terms - nouns or verbs introduction and subsequent use of abbreviations, acronyms, and the like unambiguous use of pronoun referents presence of transitional terms to establish relationships use of terms from similar term classes (electrical, etc.)

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Genre Definitions

Tutorial

Referential

Procedural

Job-Aids

Marketing

Glossary

Tutorials

Audience Training

Frequency of Use

Language Characteristics

Procedural Documents

Audience Training

Frequency of Use

Language Characteristics

Reference Documents

Audience Training

Frequency of Use

Language Characteristics

Job Aids

Audience Training

Frequency of Use

Language Characteristics

Marketing Documents

Audience Training

Frequency of Use

Language Characteristics

Glossary